PopeBlessed Pius IX
Bishop of Rome
Pius IX in 1875
Native name	Pio IX
Church	Catholic Church
Papacy began	16 June 1846
Papacy ended	7 February 1878
Predecessor	Gregory XVI
Successor	Leo XIII
Previous post(s)	Auditor to Chile and Peru(1823‍–‍1825) Head of the Hospital of San Michele (1825‍–‍1827) CanonofSanta Maria in Via Lata(1825‍–‍1827) Archbishop of Spoleto(1827‍–‍1832) Archbishop (personal title) of Imola(1832‍–‍1846) Cardinal-Priest of Santi Marcellino e Pietro(1840‍–‍1846)
Orders
Ordination	10 April 1819 byFabrizio Sceberras Testaferrata
Consecration	3 June 1827 byFrancesco Saverio Castiglioni
Created cardinal	23 December 1839 (in pectore) 14 December 1840 (revealed) byGregory XVI
Personal details
Born	Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti 13 May 1792 Senigallia, Marche,PapalStates
Died	7 February 1878(aged85) Apostolic Palace, Vatican City,Kingdom of Italy
Signature
Coat of arms
Sainthood
Feast day	7 February
Venerated in	Catholic Church
Title as Saint	Blessed
Beatified	3 September 2000 Saint Peters Square, Vatican City byPope John Paul II
Attributes	Papal vestments Papal tiara
Patronage	Pius Seminary of Rome[1] Senigallia[2] Diocese of Senigallia[2] First Vatican Council
Shrines	San Lorenzo fuori le mura
Other popes named Pius

Pope Pius IX(Italian:Pio IX; bornGiovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti;^{[a]13 May 1792 – 7 February 1878) was head of theCatholic Churchfrom 1846 to 1878. His reign of nearly 32 years is the longest verified of anypopein history. He was notable for convoking theFirst Vatican Councilin 1868 and for permanently losing control of thePapal Statesin 1870 to theKingdom of Italy. Thereafter, he refused to leaveVatican City, declaring himself a "prisoner in the Vatican".}

At the time of his election, some considered him liberal, but no longer after theRevolutions of 1848. Upon the assassination of hisprime minister,Pellegrino Rossi, Pius fledRomeandexcommunicatedall participants in the short-livedRoman Republic. After its suppression by the French army and his return in 1850, his policies and doctrinal pronouncements became increasingly conservative. He was responsible for thekidnapping of Edgardo Mortara, a six-year-old taken by force from his Jewish family who went on to become a Catholic priest in his own right and unsuccessfully attempted to convert his Jewish parents.

In his 1849encyclicalUbi primum, he emphasizedMarysrole in salvation. In 1854, he promulgated the dogma of theImmaculate Conception, articulating a long-held Catholic belief that Mary, the Mother of God, was conceived withoutoriginal sin. His 1864Syllabus of Errorswas a strong condemnation of liberalism,modernism,moral relativism,secularization,separation of church and state, and otherEnlightenmentideas. Pius reaffirmed Catholic teaching in favor of making the Catholic faith the state religion where possible.^{[citation needed]}

His appeal for financial support revived global donations known asPeters Pence. He strengthened the central power of theHoly SeeandRoman Curiaover the worldwide Catholic Church, while also formalizing the popes ultimate doctrinal authority (the dogma ofpapal infallibilitydefined in 1870).Pope John Paul IIbeatified him in 2000.

Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was born on 13 May 1792 inSenigallia. He was the ninth child born into the noble family of Girolamo dei Conti Mastai-Ferretti (1750–1833), grandnephew ofPietro Girolamo Guglielmi, and wife Caterina Antonia Maddalena Solazzei di Fano (1764–1842).^{[3]He was baptized on the day of his birth with the names Giovanni Maria Battista Pietro Pellegrino Isidoro. He was educated at thePiaristCollege inVolterraand in Rome. An unreliable account published many years later[4]suggests that the young Count Mastai was engaged to the daughter of the (Protestant)Church of IrelandBishop of Kilmore,William Foster. Certainly, if there was ever any such engagement, it did not proceed.}

In 1814, as a theology student in his hometown of Sinigaglia, he metPope Pius VII, who had returned from French captivity. In 1815, he entered the PapalNoble Guardbut was soon dismissed after an epileptic seizure.^{[5]He threw himself on the mercy of Pius VII, who elevated him and supported his continued theological studies.}

Mastai-Ferretti was ordained a priest on 10 April 1819. The Pope had originally insisted that another priest should assist Mastai-Ferretti during Holy Mass, but rescinded the stipulation after the seizures became less frequent.^{[6]He initially worked as the rector of the Tata Giovanni Institute in Rome.}

Shortly before his death, Pius VII – following Chilean leaderBernardo OHiggins wish to have the Pope reorganize the Catholic Church of the new republic – named himauditorto assist theapostolic nuncio, Monsignore Giovanni Muzi, in the first mission to post-revolutionary South America.^{[7]The mission had the objective to map out the role of theCatholic Church in Chileand its relationship with the state, but when it finally arrived inSantiagoin March 1824, OHiggins had been overthrown and replaced by GeneralRamón Freire, who was less well-disposed toward the Church and had already taken hostile measures such as the seizure of Church property. Having ended in failure, the mission returned to Europe.[8]Nevertheless, Mastai-Ferretti had been the first future pope ever to have been in the Americas. Upon his return to Rome, the successor of Pius VII,Pope Leo XII, appointed him head of the hospital ofSan Michele a Ripain Rome (1825–1827) andcanonofSanta Maria in Via Lata.}

Leo XII appointed the 35-year-old Mastai-FerrettiArchbishop of Spoletoin 1827.^{[6]In 1831, theabortive revolutionthat had begun inParmaandModenaspread toSpoleto; the Archbishop obtained a general pardon after it was suppressed, gaining him a reputation for being liberal. During an earthquake, he made a reputation as an efficient organizer of relief and great charity.[6]The following year he was moved to the more prestigiousDiocese of Imola, was made acardinalin pectorein 1839, and in 1840 was publicly announced ascardinal-priestofSanti Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano. As in Spoleto, his episcopal priorities were the formation of priests through improved education and charities. He became known for visiting prisoners in jail and for programs for street children.[9]Cardinal Mastai-Ferretti was considered a liberal during his episcopate in Spoleto and Imola because he supported administrative changes in thePapal Statesand sympathized with the nationalist movement in Italy.}

Theconclaveof 1846, following the death ofPope Gregory XVI(1831–1846), took place in an unsettled political climate within Italy. The conclave was steeped in a factional division between right and left. The conservatives on the right favoured the hardline stances andpapal absolutismof the previous pontificate, while liberals supported moderate reforms.^{[10]The conservatives supportedLuigi Lambruschini, the late popesCardinal Secretary of State. Liberals supported two candidates:Tommaso Pasquale Gizziand the then 54-year-old Mastai Ferretti.[11]}

During the first ballot, Mastai-Ferretti received 15 votes, the rest going to Lambruschini and Gizzi. Lambruschini received a majority of the votes in the early ballots but failed to achieve the required two-thirds majority. Gizzi was favoured by theFrench governmentbut failed to get further support from the cardinals, and the conclave ended up ultimately as a contest between Lambruschini and Mastai-Ferretti.^{[12]In the meantime, CardinalTommaso Bernettireportedly received information that CardinalKarl Kajetan von Gaisruck, the Austrian Archbishop of Milan, was on his way to the conclave tovetothe election of Mastai-Ferretti on behalf of theAustrian EmpireandPrince Metternich.[13]According to historian Valérie Pirie, Bernetti realized that he had only a few hours in which to stop Lambruschinis election.}

Faced with a deadlock and urgently persuaded by Bernetti to reject Lambruschini, liberals and moderates decided to cast their votes for Mastai-Ferretti, in a move that contradicted the general mood throughout Europe. On the evening of the second day of the conclave, 16 June 1846, Mastai-Ferretti was elected pope. "He was a glamorous candidate, ardent, emotional with a gift for friendship and a track-record of generosity even towards anti-Clericals andCarbonari. He was a patriot, known to be critical of Gregory XVI."^{[11]Because it was night, no formal announcement was given, just the signal of white smoke.}

On the following morning, the Cardinalprotodeacon,Tommaso Riario Sforza, announced the election of Mastai Ferretti before a crowd of faithful Catholics. When Mastai-Ferretti appeared on the balcony, the mood became joyous. He chose the name of Pius IX in honour ofPope Pius VII, who had encouraged his vocation to the priesthood despite his childhood epilepsy. However, the new pope had little diplomatic experience and no curial experience at all. Pius IX was crowned on 21 June 1846.

The election of the liberal Pius IX created much enthusiasm in Europe and elsewhere. "For the next twenty months after the election, Pius IX was the most popular man on the Italian peninsula, where the exclamation "Long life to Pius IX!" was often heard.^{[14]English Protestantscelebrated him as a "friend of light" and a reformer ofEuropetowards freedom and progress.[15]He was elected without secular political influences and in the full vigor of life. He was pious, progressive, intellectual, decent, friendly, and open to all.[16]While his political views and policies were hotly debated in the coming years, his personal lifestyle was above reproach, a model of simplicity and poverty in everyday affairs.[17]}

Cardinal Mastai Ferretti entered the papacy in 1846, amidst widespread expectations that he would be a champion of reform and modernization in the Papal States, which he ruled directly, and in the entire Catholic Church. Admirers wanted him to lead the battle for Italian independence. His later turn toward profound conservatism shocked and dismayed his original supporters, while surprising and delighting the conservative old guard.^[18]

The most notable event in Pius IXs long pontificate was the end of thePapal States, which lay in the middle of the "Italian boot" around the central area ofRome. In contrast, he led the worldwide Church toward an ever-increasing centralization and consolidation of power in Rome and the papacy. More than his predecessors, Pius used the papal pulpit to address the bishops of the world. TheFirst Vatican Council(1869–1870), which he convened to consolidate papal authority further, was considered a milestone not only in his pontificate but also in ecclesiastical history through its defining of the dogma ofpapal infallibility.^[20]

After theFirst Vatican Councilconcluded, an emissary of the Roman Curia was dispatched to secure the signatures of PatriarchGregory II Youssefand the rest of theMelkitedelegation who had votednon placetat the general congregation and left Rome prior to the adoption of the dogmatic constitutionPastor aeternusonpapal infallibility. Gregory and the Melkite bishops ultimately subscribed to it, but added the qualifying clause used at theCouncil of Florence: "except the rights and privileges of Eastern patriarchs."^{[21]This earned Gregory the enmity of Pius IX; during his next visit to thepontiff, before leaving Rome, when Gregory was kneeling, Pius placed his knee on the patriarchs shoulder, just saying to him:Testa dura!(You headstrong!).[22][23]In spite of this event, Gregory and theMelkite Greek Catholic Churchremained committed to their union with the Holy See.}

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The ecclesiastical policies of Pius IX were dominated by defence of the rights of the church and the free exercise of religion for Catholics in countries such asRussiaand theOttoman Empire. He also fought against what he perceived to be anti-Catholic philosophies in countries such asItaly,Germany, andFrance. The German Empire sought torestrict and weaken the Churchfor a decade after theFranco-Prussian War.^[24]

Pius IX celebrated several jubilees including the 300th anniversary of theCouncil of Trent. Pius celebrated the 1,800th anniversary of the martyrdom of theApostle PeterandApostle Paulon 29 June 1867 with 512 bishops, 20,000 priests and 140,000 lay persons in Rome.^{[25]A large gathering was organized in 1871 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of his papacy. Though the Italian government in 1870 outlawed many popular pilgrimages, the faithful ofBolognaorganized a nationwide "spiritual pilgrimage" to the pope and the tombs of the apostles in 1873.[26]In 1875, Pius declared aHoly Yearthat was celebrated throughout the Catholic world. On the 50th anniversary of his episcopal consecration, people from all parts of the world came to see the old pontiff from 30 April 1877 to 15 June 1877. He was a bit shy, but he valued initiative within the church and created several new titles, rewards, and orders to elevate those who in his view deserved merit.[27]}

Pius IX created 122 new cardinals, of whom 64 were alive at his death; at the time membership in theCollege of Cardinalswas limited to 70. Noteworthy elevations included Vincenzo Pecci (his eventual successorLeo XIII);Nicholas Wisemanof Westminster; the convertHenry Edward Manning; andJohn McCloskey, the first American cardinal.^[28]

According to Bishop Cipriano Calderón, the pope intended to make theBishop of Michoacán,Juan Cayetano Gómez de Portugal y Solís, a cardinal in 1850 and even had CardinalGiacomo Antonellisend a letter to him to express his intentions. He would have been the first Latin American cardinal had he not died before the next consistory. According to theBenedictinemonk Guy-Marie Oury, a letter addressed byProsper Guérangerto his Benedictine colleague Léandre Fonteinne on 6 March 1856 indicated that Guéranger had learned that Pius IX wanted to name him a cardinal in November 1855, but he refused the honor because he did not want to live in Rome. As a result, Pius IX made theBishop of La RochelleClément Villecourt a cardinal instead.^[29]

On 22 August 1861, the pope informed thePatriarch of VeniceAngelo Ramazzottithat he would name him a cardinal, however, Ramazzoti died three days before the consistory. Also in 1861, thedean of the Sacred RotaIgnazio Alberghini declined the popes offer of nomination into the Sacred College. In December 1863, Pius IX intended to elevate theArchbishop of Gniezno and PoznańLeon Michał Przyłuskito the cardinalate, but he died before the consistory took place. In 1866, Pius IX wanted to nominate aBarnabiteto the College of Cardinals before he opened the First Vatican Council. While the pope originally decided on appointingCarlo Vercellone, a noted biblical scholar, Vercellone refused due to his precarious health, instead proposing that Pius IX instead nominateLuigi Bilio. In 1868, Pius IX nominated Andre Pila to the cardinalate, however, he died the day before he would have been elevated as the only person for elevation in that April consistory. Also in 1868, Pius IX offered the cardinalate to the Bishop of ConcepciónJosé Hipólito Salaswhom he had met during the First Vatican Council, inviting him to join the Roman Curia. However, the bishop preferred to live in Chile and declined the offer, while Pius IX did not offer it again in the future.^[29]

In 1875, Pius IX intended to nominate the papalalmonerXavier de Mérodeto the Sacred College, however, he died just eight months before the consistory was to be held. Pius IX also decided to nominateAugusto Negroni[pl], a longtime Curial official, but he declined and instead joined theSociety of Jesusin mid-1874.^[29]

Pope Pius IXcanonized52 saints during his pontificate. He canonized notable saints such as theMartyrs of Japan(8 June 1862),Josaphat Kuntsevych(29 June 1867), andNicholas Pieck(29 June 1867). Pius IX furtherbeatified222 individuals throughout his papacy, including the likes ofBenedict Joseph Labre,Peter Claver, and his two predecessorsPope Eugene IIIandPope Urban V.

Pius IX named three newDoctors of the Church:Hilary of Poitiers(13 May 1851, naming him "Doctor divinitatem Christi" or "Doctor of the Divinity of Christ"),Alphonsus Liguori(23 March 1871, naming him "Doctor zelantissimus" or "Most Zealous Doctor"), andFrancis de Sales(19 July 1877, naming him "Doctor caritatis" or "Doctor of Charity").

Pius IX was not only pope but, until 1870, also the lastsovereignruler of thePapal States. As a secular ruler he was occasionally referred to as "king",^{[30]though it is unclear whether theHoly Seeever accepted this title.Ignaz von Döllinger, a fervent critic of Pius infallibility dogma, considered the political regime of the pope in the Papal States "wise, well-intentioned, mild-natured, frugal and open for innovations".[31]Yet there was controversy. In the period before the1848 revolutions, Pius was a most ardent reformer advised by such innovative thinkers asAntonio Rosmini(1797–1855), who reconciled the new free-thinking concerning human rights with the classicalnatural lawtradition of the churchs political and economic teaching onsocial justice.[32]After the revolution, however, his political reforms and constitutional improvements were minimal, remaining largely within the framework of the 1850 laws mentioned above.[33]}

St. Peters Squareand itsBasilicabefore Pope Pius IX added statues of SaintsPeterandPaul

The centre of Rome showing theColosseumandRoman Forumaround 1870. Almost rural in character, it was known as the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field"

Pius IXs liberal policies initially made him very popular throughout Italy. He appointed an able and enlightened minister,Pellegrino Rossi, to administer the Papal States. He also showed himself hostile toAustrianinfluences, delighting Italian patriots, who hailed him as the coming redeemer of Italy. "They want to make a Napoleon of me who am only a poor country parson", he once declared.^[34]

In Pius early years as pope, the government of the Papal States improved agricultural technology and productivity via farmer education in newly created scientific agricultural institutes. It abolished the requirements forJewsto attend Christian services and sermons and opened the papal charities to the needy amongst them. The new pope freed all political prisoners by giving amnesty to revolutionaries, which horrified the conservative monarchies in the Austrian Empire and elsewhere.^{[11]"He was celebrated inNew York City,LondonandBerlinas a model ruler."[11]}

In 1848, Pius IX released a new constitution titled the "Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church". The governmental structure of the Papal States reflected the dual spiritual-secular character of the papacy. The secular or laypersons were strongly in the majority with 6,850 persons versus 300 members of the clergy. Nevertheless, the clergy made key decisions and every job applicant had to present a character evaluation from his parishpriestto be considered.^{[35][full citation needed]}

Financial administration in the Papal States under Pius IX was increasingly put in the hands of laymen. The budget and financial administration in the Papal States had long been subject to criticism even before Pius IX. In 1850, he created a government finance body ("congregation") consisting of four laymen with finance backgrounds for the 20 provinces. After joining theLatin Monetary Unionin 1866, the oldRoman scudowas replaced by the newPapal lira.

Pius IX is credited with systematic efforts to improve manufacturing and trade by giving advantages and papal prizes to domestic producers ofwool, silk and other materials destined for export. He improved the transportation system by building roads, viaducts, bridges andseaports. A series of new railway links connected the Papal States to northern Italy. It soon became apparent that the Northern Italians were more adept at economically exploiting the modern means of communication than the inhabitants in central and Southern Italy.^[36]

The justice system of the Papal States was subject to much criticism, not unlike the justice systems in the rest of Italy. Legal books were scarce, standards inconsistent, and judges were often accused of favoritism. In the Papal States and throughout Italy, organized criminal gangs threatened commerce and travelers, engaging in robbery and murder at will.^[37]

The Papal army in 1859 had 15,000 soldiers.^{[38]A separate military body, the eliteSwiss Guard, served as the Popes personal bodyguard.}

The two papal universities inRomeandBolognasuffered much from revolutionary activities in 1848 but their standards in the areas of science, mathematics, philosophy and theology were considered adequate.^{[39]Pius recognized that much had to be done and instituted a reform commission in 1851.}

During his tenure, Catholics andProtestantscollaborated to found a school in Rome to study international law and train international mediators committed to conflict resolution.^[40]

There was one newspaper,Giornale di Roma, and one periodical,La Civiltà Cattolica, run byJesuits.^[39]

A hagiographic presentation of Pius IX

Illustration of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran

Like most of his predecessors, Pius IX was a patron of the arts. He supported architecture, painting, sculpture, music,goldsmiths,coppersmiths, and more, and handed out numerous rewards to artists.^{[41]Much of his efforts went to renovate and improve churches in Rome and the Papal States.[42]}

He ordered the strengthening of theColosseum, which was feared to be on the verge of collapse.^{[43]Huge sums were spent in the excavation of the ChristianCatacombs of Rome, for which Pius created a new archaeological commission in 1853.}

The Papal States were atheocracyin which the Catholic Church and its members had far more rights than other religions. Pius IXs religious policies became increasingly reactionary over time. At the beginning of his pontificate, together with other liberal measures, Pius opened up theJewish ghetto in Rome, freeing Jews to reside elsewhere. In 1850, after French troops defeated the revolutionaryRoman Republicand returned him from exile, the Pope reversed the Republics religious freedom laws and issued a series of anti-liberal measures, including re-instituting the Jewish ghetto.^[44]

In a highly publicizedcasefrom 1858, the police of the Papal States seized a 6-year-old Jewish boy,Edgardo Mortara, from his parents. A Christian servant girl unrelated to the family claimed she had informallybaptizedhim during an illness six years prior, fearing he would die. This had made the child legally a Christian convert, and Papal law forbade Christians from being raised by Jews, even their own parents. The incident provoked widespread outrage amongst liberals, both Catholic and non-Catholic, and contributed to the growing anti-papal sentiment in Europe. The boy was raised in thepapal household, and was eventually ordained a priest at age 21.^[45]

Pope Piux IX was one of a handful of prominent political and ecclesiastical leaders of the late 19th Century to receive in 1869 a personal letter of admonition fromBahaullah, Prophet-Founder of theBahaiFaith, who was then an exiled Persian nobleman residing as a political prisoner in the Holy Land fortress-city of Akka under the Ottoman Empire.The popes lack of responsiveness to the offered consul is cited as one of the factors that contributed to the loss of the Papal States, as argued byShoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahai Faith, in Chapter XIII^{[46]ofGod Passes By.}

Pius IX was the last pope who also functioned as a secular ruler and the monarch of thePapal States, ruling over some 3 million subjects from 1846 to 1870, when the newly foundedKingdom of Italyseized the remaining areas of the Papal States by force of arms. Contention between Italy and the Papacy was only resolved legally by the 1929Lateran Treaty(Lateran PactsorLateran Accords) between the Kingdom of Italy underMussoliniand theHoly See, the latter receiving financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States and recognition of the Vatican City State as the sovereign independent territory of the Holy See.